Which concept refers to a status that has special importance for social identity often shaping a persons entire life?

Identity is the concept of 'who we believe ourselves to be'. It is personal (how you see yourself) and social (how others see you).

Social identity is defined as the product of all the experiences an individual goes through during social interactions to develop a sense of 'who they believe themselves to be'.

What is social identity?

Sociologists consider the concept of identity as a socially constructed phenomenon - an individual or collective representation of social categories (religion, class, gender, and so forth). Social psychologists like Henri Tajfel and John Turner proposed the social identity theory, an interplay between personal and social groups (social class, family, sports team, etc.).

Social identity theory

The theory studies how individuals create and define their identity through (social) group membership. The process involves three stages: 'Categorisation', 'identification', and 'comparison'.

In the first stage, the individual is assigned to a social group (for example, students). In the second stage, the individual adopts the identity and conforms to the norms of that group. This gives the individual a sense of belonging. In the final stage, the individual identifies with one's own group and compares it to other groups.

These result in the categorisation of an in-group - where an individual feels identified as a member of the group; and an out-group, the group where the individual doesn't belong. Members of the in-group view their group with a positive bias and look out for negative aspects of the out-group.

Identity and categories

In all societies, individual and group identities are built around categories.

• Social - class, gender, ethnicity, etc.
• Biological - age, sex, etc.
• Physical - region/location, occupation, etc.

The categories above are associated with a set of social characteristics that broadly define them, and can be further linked with social expectations.

Apart from the biological aspect, age develops a social character. Society offers a cultural grouping based on age (childhood, youth, adolescence, and old age), and expectations are built from people belonging to these groups. That is why a child is expected to behave differently than an adult.

Identity: achieved and ascribed

An individual's identity is made up of key aspects like social class, ethnicity, sex, age, gender, religious beliefs, and so forth. These aspects can be clubbed under two categories:

• Ascribed identity - Aspects of identity given by society such as social class, ethnicity, nationality, gender, etc.

• Achieved identity - The aspects of identity that are chosen or achieved by the individual like social status, religious belief, family role, relationship status, etc.

Sociologists argue that identities are dynamic and can be negotiated or redefined.

Consider an individual's nationality. It becomes very relevant at particular times, when supporting your team in sports, or your country in times of conflict.

Factors that shape identity

Erving Goffman illustrates his idea about identity by describing how individuals adopt roles and use techniques to create an impression. He uses the term dramaturgy, an idea that the social world is a play in which all individuals are actors.

• Goffman believed that people learn to enact roles in the process of socialisation. People have a series of encounters during social interaction, which defines the situation for the actors. Once faced, an individual plays the role, representing themselves in a way that tries to manipulate others' impression of them. Goffman defined this expression as impression management. In turn, the others also try to manage the individual's impression of them during the interaction.

• This theory explains the relationship between individuals (actors), their ability to behave expectedly (play the role), and the society in which they live (stage).

In a classroom, certain individuals play the role of students. One conforms to the rules or norms associated with this role, as they already learn about it during the process of (secondary) socialisation.

GH Mead's concept of identity can be considered a social psychological perspective. His theory of identity formation (self) relies upon a complex interplay between 'I' (the unsocialised, impulsive self) and 'me' (the socialised self).

• According to Mead, in the process of development, a child slips into the process of role-taking. At first, the child plays the roles (imitates) of significant others during the play stage. Then, in the game stage, the child takes up the role of generalised others, considering their expectations and judgments towards the role.

• Broadly speaking, Mead's analysis explains how an individual develops social identity through the process of role-taking, initially by adjusting to the perspectives of significant others, and later the generalised others.

Let's take a quick look at the other aspects around which individual and group identities are built.

Gender, sex, and identity

While some experts argue that gender is determined biologically, sociologists argue that it is a social construct.

Sex refers to the biological characteristic of the individual (male, female, various combinations of male and female sexual organs). Gender refers to the cultural differences associated with sexes based on social norms (for example, masculinity and femininity).

Gender identity is an individual's understanding of their gender. Individuals who identify with a role or gender expression that differs from the sex they were assigned since birth are called transgender.

Transgender males relate to the social characteristics associated with being feminine and identify their gender as female. On the other hand, transgender females relate to masculine aspects of society and identify their gender as male.

When transgender individuals undergo medical procedures (surgery, therapy, etc) to alter their bodies to align with the gender identity they follow, they are called transsexuals.

The history of sex and gender roles is contested. Talcott Parsons believed biological differences between men and women were 'natural', and that determined their social roles. These roles were further reinforced through the process of socialisation.

From a functionalist perspective, based on their capability to bear children, lactate, and other abilities, women should perform the 'expressive' role, and be more caring or nurturing. Men, based on their physical strength, should play an 'instrumental', or breadwinner role. They should be the ones to earn money and provide for the family.

From a feminist perspective, gender identity is a socially constructed phenomenon. It is an outcome of patriarchy. Feminists argue that a male-dominated society creates and reinforces stereotypical expectations of gender roles based on masculinity and femininity. They point to the fact that 'feminine' identity is mostly linked to being submissive, showing a lack of confidence and ambition, etc.

Connell's concept of 'hegemonic masculinity'(dominant, macho, and aggressive) proposes that men maintain dominant social roles over women and other gender identities. Other forms of male identities, like homosexual males or unemployed men, are not dominant in society. They are not accepted as examples of 'real' masculinity.

Jeffrey Weeks, a historian and sociologist, believes that sexual identity is more complex than any other aspect of an individual's identity.

Individuals who identify themselves as 'gay' don't always participate in same-sex sexual activities, and those who engage in same-sex sexual activities aren't necessarily 'gay'. In basic terms, homosexual behaviour doesn't necessarily lead to a homosexual identity.

Adrienne Rich takes a feminist perspective in describing how women are socialised. She coined the term 'compulsory heterosexuality' to explain how women are forced to take up heterosexual roles and ensure their availability to men. She argues that the 'lesbian' identity in women is seen as a threat to male dominance over females in a patriarchal society.

Age

While many believe age to be a biological component, sociologists argue that it is a social construct, and learned during primary and secondary socialisation. Age identity is broadly categorised into childhood, youth/adolescence, middle age, and old age (these are ascribed by society).

• While many believe age to be a biological component, sociologists argue that it is a social construct, and learned during primary and secondary socialisation. Age identity is broadly categorised into childhood, youth/adolescence, middle age, and old age (ascribed by society).

Individuals are exposed to different cultural characteristics depending on where they are placed in the course of their lives.

During childhood, one experiences a protective and privileged environment provided by the family (primary agent of socialisation). In educational institutes (secondary agent of socialisation), the child is exposed to norms, rules, and regulations placed to impose restrictions on behaviour.

In old age, individuals are often associated with social stigmas like being dependent, weak, or lonely. As Philipson argues, they're seen as a 'burden' on society. A Marxist perspective suggests that this approach towards the elderly is a result of capitalism. That is, once the elderly reach the end of their working lives, their spending power reduces. Age identities are also influenced by gender, of course.

One might consider that access to anti-ageing cream, hair dye, and cosmetic surgery indicates pressure on the representation of aged people, especially women.

An alternative perspective on the above example can be that there are no restrictions, and the person in question is choosing to mask their old age through surgery or cosmetics. Hence, postmodernistsargue that attitudes towards age are changing.

The media represents old people differently, now - wearing fashionable clothes, enjoying sports or holidays: being examples of a 'youthful' old age in news advertisements and magazines.

Social class

In Sociology, classis commonly referred to as a classification of people who share economic or occupational situations.

Social class categorises people into groups with similar or different social circumstances.

When people identify with other members of their group (class), it gives them a sense of 'collective identity'.

The economic circumstances of an individual influences their lifestyle, bringing up, health, schooling, etc. People with similar economic backgrounds share norms and values and start developing into a social class.

Social class is traditionally divided into three categories.

• The upper class.
• The middle class.
• The working class.

These social class identities are formed during the process of socialisation through social agents (family, peer group, workplace). The few popular aspects on which class is judged or assessed are occupation, money/income, possessions (gadgets, car, jewellery, etc.), lifestyle/leisure, and so forth.

The upper class

The people belonging to this category are identified as those who own or control businesses. Traditionally, the upper class consisted of those who inherited wealth in the form of land.

Members of the upper class engage in leisure activities that are often inaccessible to the majority like opera, polo, socialising in exclusive pubs, sending children to boarding schools, etc.

Through such activities, the members of the upper class gain a sense of collective identity. The exclusive lifestyle and experiences further provide a circuit where members start interacting with other members belonging to the same class.

When a child is sent to a prestigious university or a top public school, their peers are people who are seen as 'powerful' or 'influential'. This triggers a sense of 'social superiority'.Another example would be how the upper class engages in inter-marriage to maintain its class position.

Based on this, it can be argued that social classis an ascribed, or inherited identity. One is born into a family belonging to a particular class, but the relationship status or the family role is achieved.

The middle class

The middle class is a diverse group containing people from different social and work backgrounds. People in this category might not be owners of businesses but may have managerial or professional careers.

Pierre Bourdieuargues that institutions run by middle-class professionals benefit the pupils belonging to the middle class. He explains that the knowledge, ideas, or behaviour one learns in school (a middle-class institution) are defined by teachers (middle-class professionals), and these teachings are considered acceptable or 'right' by people belonging to the middle class.

Children also learn the 'socially accepted' values and norms like a way of speaking, interacting, etc., from their family and parents, which helps them to connect with other members of their class.

It is due to the differences between public and private sector professionals that the members of the middle class are unlikely to share experiences or identities.

The income, lifestyle, and attitude of a doctor will be different from that of a teacher. However, these professionals share a common class identity, ascribed by society.

The working class

According to traditional studies, the working class consists of people who lack control or ownership and simply work for a wage. Although modern forms of work have weakened the economic base and sense of solidarity of the working class, some things bind the class together.