a trait...
is a dimension used to categorize according to the degree to which a characteristic is manifested
stability of traits
traits are stable across time and situation,
but they change, just very slowly so they're still stable
continuum of traits
there's a spectrum and a normal distribution for the the population
the foyer effect
the tendency to believe ambiguous information which can happen with some inventories
features of trait approach
not interested in one person, but rather how a group behaves
less emphasis on underlying mechanisms, only says people tend to do x, y, z,
but not why they do x, y, z
easily make comparisons across people
Gordon Allport
First recognized work on traits/ "founder". The work "Personality Traits: Their Classification and Measurement"
functional autonomy
also offered the first college class on personality
trait theory of personality; 3 levels of traits: cardinal, central, and secondary
held this assumption that traits can't make
predictions of a person (because they're built off of groups)
two stages of research: nomothetic & idiographic
Nomothetic
describe on a single dimension... kind of what do we know/what's relevant to a group?
Idiographic
An approach to studying personality that focuses more on individuals. looks at multiple dimensions rather than a single dimension on a group
central traits
groups of traits that best describe a person
cardinal traits
A single trait that completely dominates a person's entire personality. Most often found in fictional characters than in actual people.
functional autonomy
maintenance of behavior for reasons other than the original cause
Henry Murray
Blend of trait & psychoanalytic approach
Personology: psychogenic needs, needs largely unconscious, focus on which need dominates
1893-1988; Field: intelligence, testing; Contributions: devised the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) with Christina Morgan, stated that the need to
achieve varied in strength in different people and influenced their tendency to approach and evaluate their own performances
"need for achievement"
psychogenic needs
Henry Murray blended trait and psychoanalytic approach to describe unconscious needs
ex: need for achievement
Raymond Cattell
asked the question "How many
personality traits?"
should not begin with preconceived ideas, but rather let the data do the talking.
used factor analysis
Source traits
16PF is a personality Invenory
factor analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.
*Raymond
Cattell
The Big 5
openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism "OCEAN"
McKray & Casta?
the five main personality traits
the big 5: openness
being curious, original, intellectual, creative, and open to new ideas
if they are high in this, they are more bored by familiarity, but if they score low they prefer
familiarity
the big 5: conscientiousness
when people are high in conscientiousness, they tend to be organized, responsible, dependable, persistent. Relates to performance at work. Relates to leadership and longevity. Academic success & less likely to be deviant at work.
the big 5: extraversion
if they score high, they are
energized by socializing. They tend to be assertive, talkative, sociable, expressive and relates to performance in sales and managerial jobs. Relates to team performance and leadership & relates to happiness.
if they score low, they tend to be more of an introvert who are energized by alone time
the big 5: agreeableness
high score: Good-natured, cooperative, trusting, warm, and relates to performance in service jobs. less likely to be deviant at work
the big 5: neuroticism
high score: would tend to be more anxious, irritable, temperamental, and moody - experiences a range of emotions and experiences the ends of a spectrum of emotions
low score: not unfeeling, but much more stable
Big 5 Criticisms/Limitations
debate about
what "factor" means
disagreement about structure (are there more or less traits?)
atheoretical (we don't have hypothesis, we just use data analysis in factor analysis and more likely to see a type 1 problem)
trait approach criticism
traits do not predict behavior well
little evidence for situation consistency (but some argue there is stability)
trait approach defense of criticisms
measuring behavior would do better if the right behaviors were measured & & it was a group study
aggregate data
identifying relevant traits and says we may be looking at wrong traits
importance of 10% of variance
big 5 application
employers use personality tests in hiring and the big 5 shows strong evidence for relationship
between personality and job performance
conscientiousness may best present predictor: careful, thorough, and dependable, and organized...
trait approach strengths
objective measures
allows data to guide conclusions
practical applications
large amount of research to support theories
trait approach criticisms
more
about what is left out (the questions how do traits develop or what can be done to help are not answered)
there's a lack of agreement on framework such as what are the big traits? how many traits are there?
Different teams of researchers examining human personality traits have independently found evidence that there may, in fact, only be _______ such traits.
5
A psychologist examines six personality tests. She suspects that four of the tests are really measuring the same personality trait and that the other two measure another personality trait. What kind of research should the psychologist conduct to test her hypothesis?
factor analysis
Among the Big Five personality dimensions, individual differences in _________ typically are the best predictors of job performance.
Conscientiousness
Compared to most of us, individuals who score high on the trait of openness are more likely to
willingly consider new ideas.
Karen always approaches tasks in an organized, faithful manner. She persists at a difficult job longer than most people and generally accomplishes more. Karen is probably high in which of the Big Five traits?
Conscientiousness
A woman indicates on a test that she agrees with the statement, "I am confident in my abilities." Later on the same test, she agrees with the statement, "I have doubts about my abilities." This woman's responses may indicate the presence of which potential problem?
Acquiescence response
Which approach to personality has relatively little to say about how people develop specific personality characteristics?
Trait
Which of the following statements is true about the trait approach?
No major schools of psychotherapy have evolved from the trait approach.
Test-takers who "fake good"
are trying to present a better image than is accurate.
Julie sets high goals for herself at work. She is more committed to reaching these goals than most employees. She is organized, works hard, and remains persistent in the face of obstacles to reaching her work goals. Julie would probably score high on a measure of
Conscientiousness
Which theorist had a strong influence on Henry Murray's theorizing about personality?
Carl Jung
Each of the following is true about the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) except one. Which one?
It provides test givers with an overall mental health score for each test-taker.
Which theorist identified psychogenic needs as the basic elements of personality?
Henry Murray
If we say Ted is high on the personality trait of assertiveness, we would expect that he will act assertively
more often than someone low in assertiveness
According to Murray, we need to know all of the following pieces of information except one in order to predict a woman's achievement behavior. Which one?
Her fear of failure
Recent research on the "Big Five" personality factors uses an approach to understanding personality similar to that advocated by
Raymond Cattell
Personality psychologists use factor analysis to help them determine
which personality traits correlate with each other.
Raymond Cattell argued that in their efforts to understanding the basic structure of personality, psychologists should
allow empirical data analyses to describe the basic structure of personality to us.
According to Jung, the unconscious part of ourselves that is essentially negative—the dark side of our identity—is called
the shadow.
"There are images in your unconscious that you did not repress. You were born with these unconscious images." Which theorist is most likely to have said this?
Jung
The snake is a universal symbol of evil. This is represented symbolically in art, folklore, and religious stories throughout time and across cultures. Which theorist would consider this observation as evidence to support his theory?
Jung
Phil was often picked on and teased by his parents and other children when growing up. He soon learned to keep people at a distance, to spend most of his time alone. He continued this pattern as an adult, settling on a bookkeeping job that keeps him working in solitude most of the time. Which theorist might use Phil as an example to support part of his or her theory?
Horney
Who was the first neo-Freudian theorist to break with Freud?
Adler
Like Freud's original theory, the neo-Freudian approach can be criticized for
-being more descriptive than scientific.
-incomplete or limited accounts of personality.
a lack of
scientific evidence
-all of these are legitimate criticisms
Erikson proposed eight stages of personality development through the life span, many more than Freud proposed. In terms of stages, Freud's anal stage of development takes place roughly the same time of life as which of Erikson's stages?
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
According to Karen Horney, a person who becomes extremely dependent on other people
is using this interpersonal style to avoid feelings of anxiety.
According to Fromm, people who conform to what society deems to be normal behavior are
trying to escape from the perception of powerlessness and loneliness.
According to Horney, which of the three interpersonal styles is likely to lead to a successful relationship?
relationship combination of different interpersonal styles
A teenage boy drifts from one religion or social cause to another, in an effort to "find himself." He seems to be wrestling with the question of "who am I" in a spiritual sort of way. According to Erikson, he is probably struggling with which developmental crisis?
Identity versus role confusion
Which of the following is correct about Adler's concept of striving for superiority?
Striving for superiority has its roots in a child's perception of personal inferiority.
According to Jung, people in all cultures throughout history have believed in powerful God-like entities because of
the God archetype.
The last stage of personality development described by Erikson typically occurs when in the life cycle?
Old Age
Which of the following theoretical concepts has been given general support from research using personal narratives?
Erikson's generativity versus stagnation stage
Compared to Freud's theory, the neo-Freudian theories generally are
more concerned with the social aspects of personality development
Samantha is anxious about socializing with others and she acts so funny toward her peers when they invite her to go out with them that they have stopped asking. Which interaction style does Samantha display, according to Horney?
Moving away from people
Adler experienced each of the following in his own childhood except one. Which one?
Being a firstborn child
"Parents should allow children to be independent, to make their own choices and mistakes, but without depriving the children of the parental attention they need." Which theorist is most likely to have said this?
Adler
According to Jung, modern psychotherapists often take on the role once provided by
the clergy
A psychologist asks you to look at some pictures and tell a story about the people in them. Which test are you probably taking?
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Researchers have found an association between health and each of the following personality variables exceptone. Which one?
Affect intensity
Monroe is very competitive at work and when playing sports with his friends. He often takes work home with him in the evening and frequently eats lunch at his desk so he can do two things at once. He gets very frustrated and sometimes angry when he can't do something well the first time. Monroe could best be classified as a(n)
Type A person.
Darlene's emotions are easy to read: she smiles broadly when happy and looks down when sad. Researchers would say that Darlene is high in
emotional expressiveness
Researchers find that people high in negative affect also tend to have a higher number of health complaints. This is probably because
they have more health problems and they complain more than most people
Some researchers believe that evaluation apprehension is the underlying cause of social anxiety. This means people high in social anxiety
are afraid of what other people will think of them
Researchers have found relatively stable individual differences in each of the following except one. Which one?
Emotional awareness
Compared to people with low affect intensity, those with high affect intensity are more likely to
...
In a study of varying task difficulty, researchers found that under threat to their perception of control,
the most difficult task aroused Type A participants more than Type B.
Which of the following did early researchers examining need for Achievement have in common with many psychoanalytic therapists?
Both used projective tests.
Using factor analysis, Eysenck found that people who score high on the dimension of psychoticism tend to be
egocentric and aggressive.
Eysenck provided all of the following evidence except one to make the case for a biological basis of personality. Which one?
Research on brain-wave activity
Psychologists have found that using an electroencephalograph (EEG) in their research has all the advantages listed below except one. Which one?
The EEG electrodes only pierce the scalp in a few places, and participants recover from the procedure after only a few days.
The form of anxiety shown by inhibited children that comes from their exposure to unfamiliar people, settings, or challenges is called
anxiety to novelty
A woman likes to spend her time with others, enjoys loud music, often acts impulsively, and does not like to be alone. According to Eysenck's model of personality, this woman is
highly extraverted
In Eysenck's model of personality, which of the following is correct about the dimension of extraversion introversion?
It is one of two basic personality dimensions
Some psychologists argue that we should utilize different learning procedures to meet the needs of each student's temperament. This approach is based on which model?
The "goodness of fit" mode
People who are easily upset or have a quick temper are high in
emotionality
Donna is a very shy seven-year-old. Research suggests that when she was only a few years old, Donna was probably anxious about
novel situations.
The biological approach to personality has each of the following strengths except one. Which one?
Nearly all of the hypotheses generated from the biological approach can be tested through direct manipulation of the variables of interest.
The "lipstick effect" refers to
the tendency for women to spend more money on cosmetics during bad economic times.
Psychologists interested in studying personality might use the twin-study method in order to
-separate environmental from genetic influences.
-determine how much of our personality is the result of experience.
-determine how much of our personality is inherited from our parents.
-all of these are correct
The twin-study method is used by researchers to get around which methodological problem?
A confound between genetic and environmental influences
A psychologist conducts research using the twin-study method. He administers a need for Achievement scale to sets of monozygotic and dizygotic twins and finds a correlation of .50 between the scores for pairs of monozygotic twins. If this study is to demonstrate evidence for a genetic influence on need for Achievement, what would we expect the correlation to be between scores for pairs of dizygotic twins?
Lower than .50
Which of the following is true about parental investment?
Males of many species are free to mate with as many females as they can.
Which of the following aspects of twins allows researchers to use the twin-study method to understand genetic similarities or differences?
Monozygotic twins have identical genes
Critics have pointed to several weaknesses in the research used to make a case for the role of genetics on personality development. Their criticisms include each of the following points except one. Which one?
Dizygotic twins may share an environment more alike than the environment shared by monozygotic twins.
One reason for the resistance by psychologists to acknowledge the important role of biology in human personality is that the
a. results of biologically based research can always be explained without reference to genetic factors.
b. blank slate view has such great appeal.
c. biological determinants of personality matter little.
d. field of
psychology is determined to remain separate from biology.
b. blank slate view has such great appeal.
Personality researchers sometimes examine the personalities of children who were adopted shortly after birth. They do this because
a. the researchers want to know if adoption is traumatic for the children.
b. these children were likely raised in a very supportive, nurturing environment.
c. genetic and
environmental influences are not confounded like they are when examining children raised by their biological parents.
d. extensive records of the child's health and early personality indicators are available.
c. genetic and environmental influences are not confounded like they are when examining children raised by their biological parents.
A researcher asks extraverts and introverts to work on a series of math problems while listening to loud or soft music. Based on past research, we would expect to find that
a. the extraverts do better on the test, regardless of the music level.
b. the introverts do better when listening to loud music, the extraverts better when listening to soft music.
c. the extraverts do better when listening to loud music, the introverts better when listening to soft music.
d. introverts and extraverts do equally well regardless of how loud the music is playing.
c. the extraverts do better when listening to loud music, the introverts better when listening to soft music.
As reported in the textbook, research demonstrating a genetic influence on a person's level of extraversion-introversion comes primarily from research
a. comparing strength of relationship with similarity of personality scores.
b. comparing adopted children and biological children to their
parents.
c. using the twin-study method.
d. comparing adopted children's personalities with the personalities of their biological parents.
c. using the twin-study method.
Nonadditive effects would be likely to show up in which of the following pairs of siblings?
a. Monique and James, who were born 2 years apart.
b. Rebekah and Raina, who were both adopted into a family and are not genetically
related.
c. Lawrence and Ira, who are fraternal twins.
d. Rock and Jacque, who are identical twins.
d. Rock and Jacque, who are identical twins.
The "lipstick effect" refers to
a. men who pay more attention to superficial beauty.
b. how cosmetic marketing often heightens insecurity about one's appearance.
c. the application of more lipstick at different times during the ovulatory cycle.
d.
the tendency for women to spend more money on cosmetics during bad economic times.
d. the tendency for women to spend more money on cosmetics during bad economic times.
Based on research on extraversion introversion, which piece of advice seems justified?
a. Extraverts should isolate themselves in a quiet place if they are going to get any work done.
b. Introverts should study in quieter places than
extraverts study.
c. Introverts should move to a more stimulating environment if they are having trouble studying.
d. Because they are less aware of external disturbances than extraverts are, introverts should be better able to study in a room filled with potential distractions.
b. Introverts should study in quieter places than extraverts study.
According to evolutionary personality theory, men and women base their choice of romantic partners in part on concerns for "parental investment." This means we
a. want the parents of our spouses to be involved in the raising of our children.
b. prefer partners for whom both parents were actively involved with their children.
c. select mates who are likely to contribute to successful reproduction and child-raising.
d. consider what the parents of our potential partners are like because personality is partly inherited from one's parents.
c. select mates who are likely to contribute to successful reproduction and child-raising.
Shayla is a very introverted girl. She prefers lower arousal circumstances and has a small group of friends. She has been in a bad mood lately, and her best friend wants to cheer her up while they are at a coffee house with a group of friends. Based on the research of Zelenski and colleagues (2012), what should Shayla's friend tell her to do?
a. Try acting more extraverted when we're with other people.
b. Just be yourself, so that you feel authentic.
c. Have some more coffee so that the caffeine wakes you up.
d. You should probably go home, so that we aren't disturbing you.
a. Try acting more extraverted when we're with other people.
We can safely say that one result of the human male's preference in mate selection is that
a. women compete for promotions in the workplace.
b. women share intimate secrets about their sexual encounters.
c. women will compete for a man's attention.
d. all of these are correct.
c. women will compete for a man's attention.
Social desirability scales measure the extent to which a person
a. understands the rules of social interaction.
b. tries to present himself or
herself in a favorable light.
c. is able to understand the meaning of the test items.
d. possesses socially desirable characteristics.
b. tries to present himself or herself in a favorable light.
If we say Ted is high on the personality trait of assertiveness, we would expect that he will act assertively
a. because he puts himself in situations that call for assertion.
b. in some situations that
call for assertiveness, but not in others.
c. all of the time.
d. more often than someone low in assertiveness.
d. more often than someone low in assertiveness.
Which of the following is not a psychogenic need that exists as one of the basic elements of personality?
a. Nutrition
b. Dominance
c. Affiliation
d. Autonomy
a. Nutrition
Which of the following is true about the five-factor model?
a. Hypotheses about the origin of the Big Five factors were generated after the results of the research were seen.
b. Few have criticized it for its lack of predictive value.
c. Trait theorists would be better off focusing their research on the five main traits.
d. It provides the most comprehensive model to explain personality currently in the field.
a. Hypotheses about the origin of the Big Five factors were generated after the results of the research were seen.
Sometimes a man with a high need for Affiliation will engage in social interactions, but sometimes he will not. According to Murray, what determines the man's affiliation behavior?
a. Whether or not he has recently spent time with people
b. The need for Affiliation levels of other people
c. The strength of his need for
Affiliation relative to other needs
d. His need for Power
c. The strength of his need for Affiliation relative to other needs
Julie sets high goals for herself at work. She is more committed to reaching these goals than most employees. She is organized, works hard, and remains persistent in the face of obstacles to reaching her work goals. Julie would probably score high on a measure of
a. Agreeableness.
b. Extraversion.
c. Openness
d. Conscientiousness.
d. Conscientiousness.
Among the Big Five personality dimensions, individual differences in _________ typically are the best predictors of job performance.
a. Agreeableness
b. Conscientiousness
c. Extraversion
d. Openness
b. Conscientiousness
One strength of the trait approach to personality is that it
a. does not rely on intuition but instead on objective measures.
b. is not necessary to job counselors to do their work.
c. predicts behavior in many situations.
d.explains the development of personality traits.
a. does not rely on intuition but instead on objective measures.
Which approach to personality has relatively little to say about how people develop specific personality characteristics?
a. Psychoanalytic
b. Trait
c. Behavioral/social learning
d. Cognitive
b. Trait
Which of the following is true about the trait approach to personality?
a. The trait approach has been responsible for generating a number of useful approaches to psychotherapy.
b. Trait theorists place a greater emphasis on discovering the mechanisms
underlying behavior than do theorists from other approaches to personality.
c. Trait researchers generally are not interested in predicting the behavior of a single individual.
d. It is not easy to make comparisons across people with the trait approach.
c. Trait researchers generally are not interested in predicting the behavior of a single individual.
Marisol is highly motivated to do well in her math
class. Satisfaction for her comes from the feeling of proficiency she has when she understands difficult material. Researchers would say that Marisol is motivated by
a. a need for recognition.
b. performance goals
c.a high need for Achievement
d. mastery goals.
d. mastery goals
Researchers find that people who are high in _______ typically achieve more than the average person.
a. dispositional
optimism
b. social anxiety affect intensity
c. emotional expressiveness
a. dispositional optimism
Research has found that the strength of students' immune systems was related to
a. the number of negative emotions they displayed. b. b. the number of exams they had per month
c. the number of classes they felt they were going to pass
d. their level of optimism.
d. their level of optimism
Cross-cultural researchers investigating achievement motivation find
a. cultures that emphasize group performance tend to achieve more.
b. the meaning of achievement varies as a function of culture.
c. similar levels of need for Achievement in almost all cultures.
d. individualistic cultures achieve more than collectivist cultures.
b. the meaning of achievement varies as a function of culture
Research has identified each of the following except one as characteristic of people high in social anxiety. Which one?
a. They frequently ask friends to help them.
b. They keep conversations short and to the point.
c. They interpret feedback from others in a negative light
d. They avoid making eye contact.
a. They frequently ask friends to help them
Researchers find that men and women sometimes differ in achievement behavior because
a. men have higher endurance levels.
b. men have an inherently higher need to achieve
c. men are better at tasks calling for organization skills.
d. men and women value various kinds of achievement at different levels.
d. men and women value various kinds of achievement at different levels
Which
of the following is correct about the relation between affect intensity and well-being?
a. People with high affect intensity are happier than those with low affect intensity.
b. People with high affect intensity are happier because they do more exciting things.
c. People with low affect intensity are happier than those with high affect intensity
d. People with high and low affect intensity tend to experience happiness differently.
d. People with high and low affect intensity tend to experience happiness differently.
Early research found that Type A behavior was related to an increased likelihood of developing coronary disease. More recent research has
a. found the risk of developing coronary disease in Type As to be even greater than originally estimated. b. replicated this finding consistently.
c. found that this relationship is more complex than originally thought.
d. found no
evidence of health differences between Type As and Type Bs.
c. found that this relationship is more complex than originally thought
The strength or degree to which a person typically experiences his or her emotions is called
a. valence lability.
b. emotional stability.
c. affective intensity
d. cognitive expressiveness.
c. affective intensity
Research finds that a person who is high in ________ typically does better than the average person when coping with traumatic or stressful events.
a. Type A pessimism
b. affect intensity
c. dispositional optimism
c. dispositional optimism
Eysenck provided all of the following evidence except one to make the case for a biological basis of personality. Which one?
a. Research
on brain-wave activity
b. The results of cross-cultural research
a. Research on brain-wave activity
A psychologist wants to conduct research on cerebral asymmetry. She wants to examine
a. intellectual disability
b. differences in right- and left-hemisphere activity.
c. brain damage
d. intelligence.
b. differences in right- and left-hemisphere activity
Donna is a very shy seven-year-old. Research suggests that when she was only a few years old, Donna was probably anxious about
a. novel situations.
b. meeting people.
c. loud noises.
d. being separated from her mother.
a. novel situations
Compared to a few decades ago, personality psychologists today are much more likely to acknowledge the
importance of biological influences on personality. This shift is partly a reflection of the declining influence of ________ on the thinking of academic psychologists.
a.the trait
b. modelpsychoanalysis
c. behaviorism
d. humanism
c. behaviorism
According to Eysenck's original model, why do introverts often prefer to isolate themselves from others?
a. They have failed to develop appropriate
social skills.
b. They are trying to keep their arousal levels from getting too high.
c. They generally do not trust people.
d. They have had a history of negative social experiences.
b. They are trying to keep their arousal levels from getting too high
According to evolutionary personality theory, anxiety is
a. the result of natural selection.
b. no longer useful to human beings.
c. a
positive emotion.
d. learned.
a. the result of natural selection
According to Eysenck's original model, which of the following is true about those high in the trait of extraversion?
a. They have learned through early experiences to enjoy social events.
b. They generally have a high level of cortical arousal. c. They generally have a low level of cortical arousal. d. They are low in
neuroticism.
c. They generally have a low level of cortical arousal
Recent research challenges one aspect of Eysenck's original theory, suggesting that extraverts and introverts differ in terms of their
a. impulsiveness.
b. level of cortical arousal.
c. ability to concentrate.
d. sensitivity to stimulation.
d. sensitivity to stimulation
Researchers used measures of inhibition from when children were 21 months of age to predict how they would react upon entering kindergarten.
a. That children who were inhibited earlier displayed more risky behavior when playing a ball-tossing game.
b. that children who were inhibited earlier were less likely to play with other children, touch classmates, or even laugh.
c. That children who were inhibited earlier displayed more risky behavior when playing on a
mattress in a falling game.
d. That children who were uninhibited earlier had grown out of this tendency and interacted with other kids at about average rates.
b. that children who were inhibited earlier were less likely to play with other children, touch classmates, or even laugh
Cross-cultural research on Eysenck's model of personality tends to find the same three dimensions of personality across cultures.
Eysenck points to this finding as evidence for
a. a biological basis of personality.
b. the importance of environmental influences on personality.
c. evolutionary personality theory.
d. the need for factor analysis.
a. a biological basis of personality
The neo-Freudian approach of Erik Erikson has been referred to as ________ psychology.
a. gestalt
b. ego
c. analytic
d.
self
b. ego
Wanda was the hardest working student in her school. At graduation, she was awarded the certificate for perfect attendance throughout high school, and was the only student to have zero absences. She later shared with her teacher that she felt being at school every day could help her overcome feeling that she was not as smart as some of her peers. What might Alfred Adler have said about Wanda?
a. Wanda is the
exception to the rule, in that she should have instead displayed an inferiority complex.
b. Her striving for achievement resulted from her earlier feelings of inferiority.
c. She most likely is a firstborn child.
d. She achieved because she never saw herself as inferior, regardless of what happened to her in elementary school.
B. Her striving for achievement resulted from her earlier feelings of inferiority
According to Jung, the unconscious part of ourselves that is essentially negative—the dark side of our identity—is called
a. an anima or animus.
b. the personal unconscious.
c. an id impulse.
d. the shadow.
d. the shadow
Of the neo-Freudian theorists, the one who stimulated the most discussion about religion was
A.Carl Jung.
B. Alfred Adler.
C. Erich Fromm.
D. Karen
Horney.
A.Carl Jung.
Adler experienced each of the following in his own childhood except one. Which one?
a. Dethroning by a younger sibling
b.Being a firstborn child
c. Feelings of physical inferiority to children of his age
d. Striving for academic superiority after experiencing feelings of academic inferiority
b. Being a firstborn child
Which of the following is the name Alfred Adler gave his approach to personality?
a. Ego psychology
b.Superior psychology
c.Individual psychology
d.Analytic psychology
c. Individual psychology
According to Erikson, a person in his or her young adulthood years is most likely to be dealing with which of the following issues?
a. Whether or not to feel satisfaction with
choices made in life
b. Whether or not the career they have chosen is exactly right for them.
c. Whether or not to commit to a romantic relationship.
d. Whether or not to take an active role in the lives of young people.
c. Whether or not to commit to a romantic relationship.
The last stage of personality development described by Erikson typically occurs when in the life cycle?
a. Early
adulthood
b. Old Age
c. Adolescence
d. Around age five or six
b. Old Age
There are images in your unconscious that you did not repress. You were born with these unconscious images." Which theorist is most likely to have said this?
a. Adler
b. Jung
c. Freud
d. Erikson
b. Jung
According to Jung, if a man is
attracted to a woman, it is because
.
a. marrying her represents for him an achievement that will bolster his feelings of strength and power.
b. he has had pleasant experiences in early childhood with a woman with similar features.
c. she matches his own unconscious feminine image. d. she unconsciously reminds him of his mother.
c. she matches his own unconscious feminine image
Which of the following observations did Adler make about the effects of birth order on personality?
a. Firstborn children are the most well-adjusted and the highest achievers.
b. Because they are neglected by their parents more than their older siblings were neglected, last-born children often develop personality problems.
c. Middle-born children are the most well-adjusted and the highest achievers.
d. Although middle-born children achieve the most, firstborns are the most well-adjusted.
c. Middle-born children are the most well-adjusted and the highest achievers.
Jung identified all but one of the following as a place in which the primordial images in our collective unconscious can surface. Which one?
a. Our dreams
b. Choice of occupation
c. Hallucinations
d. Cultural symbols
b. Choice of occupation
Which of the following statements can be attributed to Jung's view of religion?
a. "Modern psychotherapy has taken on the role once reserved for the clergy."
b. "Humanistic religions emphasize that there is no God."
c. "The religions of mankind must be classified as a mass-delusion."
d. "Authoritarian religions emphasize that we are controlled by a powerful God."
a. "Modern psychotherapy has taken on the role once reserved for the clergy."
Which of the following theorists would be most likely to argue that the roots of adult personality are largely formed in childhood?
a.Jung
b. Horney
c. Erikson
d. Freud
d. Freud
Which of the following theoretical concepts has been given general support from research using personal narratives?
a. Adler's strivings for superiority
b. Horney's womb envy
c. Fromm's authoritarian religions
d. Erikson's generativity versus stagnation stage
d. Erikson's generativity versus stagnation stage
Compared to Freudian theory, neo-Freudian theories are more likely to
a. attribute differences between the personalities of men and women to cultural forces.
b. identify more differences between men and women.
c. attribute differences in the personalities of
men and women to instincts.
d. identify fewer differences between men and women.
a. attribute differences between the personalities of men and women to cultural forces
Which of the following statements best summarizes research on the effects of birth order on personality?
a. Birth order often has a strong influence on shaping the adult personality
b. Most studies find middle-born children to be
better adjusted than first- or last-born children.
c. Birth order often does not predict how people will score on personality measures.
d. Most of the predictions derived from Adler's theory have been supported.
c. Birth order often does not predict how people will score on personality measures.
Compared to Freud's theory, the neo-Freudian theories generally are
a. less biased in their
interpretation of data.
b. more pessimistic about human nature.
c. more comprehensive, in that most neo-Freudian theorists tried to explain a wider range of behaviors than did Freud.
d. more concerned with the social aspects of personality development.
d. more concerned with the social aspects of personality development.
Phil was often picked on and teased by his parents and other children when growing up. He soon learned to keep people at a distance, to spend most of his time alone. He continued this pattern as an adult, settling on a bookkeeping job that keeps him working in solitude most of the time. Which theorist might use Phil as an example to support part of his or her theory?
a. Erikson
b. Horney
c. Adler
d. Freud
b. Horney
A teenage boy drifts from one religion or social cause to another, in an effort to "find himself." He seems to be wrestling with the question of "who am I" in a spiritual sort of way. According to Erikson, he is probably struggling with which developmental crisis?
a. Generativity versus stagnation
b. Industry versus inferiority
c. Identity versus role confusion
d. Initiative versus guilt
c. Identity versus role confusion
Biological approach to personality
examines the extent to which heredity determines our personality
biological approach in history
- 30-40years ago new borns were viewed as "blank slates"
- behaviorism left out the nervous system and people wanted to look at the brain and other sources
- biological influence increased and mirrors the decline of behaviorism
Blank Slate Theory
states that every newborn baby is born as if their mind were a blank slate onto which they write thoughts and experiences
three biological approaches to personality
Hans Eysenck
Temperaments
Evolutionary personality psychology
Hans Eysenck
personality is
determined more by biology than actions of parents;
Looked at the underlying structure of personality and was trying to see how personality develops (which is different than the trait approach);
Used the new tool of factor analysis;
Three basic personality dimensions:
- extraversion-introversion
- neuroticism
- psychoticism
Extraversion-Introversion
The extent to which people are social or
unsocial, talkative or quiet, affectionate or reserved
these differ in behavior and physiology
- extroverts resting cortisol arousal is too low (Eysenk's hypothesis, but not really true)
- introverts resting cortisol arousal too high (Eysenk's hypothesis, but not really true)
Neuroticism
degree of emotional instability or stability
Psychoticism
measure of nonconformity or social deviance;
high levels: egocentric, aggressive, cold, impulsive, unconcerned about others
Hierarchy of personality (Eysenck)
specific response (lowest level)
habitual response (general routines)
traits
supertrait
Eysenk's arguments for biological approach
it's
consistent over time and in different different situations;
there's a lot of cross cultural research as well;
studies that point to genetic influences (tied to the evolutionary theory... our behavioral traits may have also come from survival);
estimates that 2/3 of personality are due to biology and 1/3 due to environment, but currently we do not have the knowledge to state this precisely
temperament
broad
dispositions to types of behavior;
children seem different in infancy;
may appear as early as during the pregnancy (activity in the belly) and this seems to be evidence for biological influence because infants have had very limited environmental interaction;
lasts throughout life;
three dimensions: emotionality, activity, and sociability, but aren't the sole determinant of adult personality. (inhibited 75%? vs uninhibited 25%)
evolutionary personality psychology
attempts to explain how patterns of behavior that characterize all humans originated in the survival value of these characteristics;
natural selection and reproduction of the fittest*only matters that you're fit if you reproduce;
post-hoc explanations can explain anything after the fact
Darwin's theory falls flat where we have not found new species, but we have found more isolated variances of species... but he explains why we
have so many types of dogs, cats, birds, etc
evolutionary psychology application
school performance and temperament
- temperament not related to intelligence
- some fit better in "classroom" (at 5 & 6 year olds :little girls have better attention than little boys in the U.S.)
- students/teach interactions (some teaching styles fit better for some students or likability makes students more
engaged)
evolutionary psychology mate selection
p242-249
Guys: looks for appearances that would show that the female is able to reproduce (young, wide hips, etc). may be nervous that the baby is not theirs. & men have a low cost when having birth. men may try to reproduce a lot so they can have some offspring (certainty)
Women: look for a partner who can support them and has resources/can protect them
(age might be part of this: good middle ground and physiology - how fit and strong they are)
assessment of evolutionary psychology
?
biological approach strengths
bridge for personality and biology;
identifying parameters for behavior changes;
interest in research/testing ideas
biological approach weaknesses
to to test evolutionary directly(weak research support);
lack of agreed model;
few suggestions fo personality suggestions
biological approach is:
NOT fixed, but research focuses on what we inherit and how much and we're looking at the interplay of our personality and our genetics. It is also difficult to state precise strength
heritability of personality
twin studies show 40-50% of similar personality? and adoption studies compare parents to children and adoption studies with twins who are separated at birth and compare how similar or different they are
is a nature vs nurture question
separating genes and environment is unethical with people and not possible to manipulate with humans or may not be as accurate with animals
monozygotic twins
identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo
"100%" genetic similarity
dizygotic twins
twins who are produced when two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time
problems with genetics research
there are assumptions about identifying twins as MZ or DZ and unless they're tested we don't know for sure
we assume twins share environments, but that's not true
we also assume that twins are random and that's not true either
extraversion-introversion arousal level
extraverts: prefer nosier open rooms. more happy individuals (may not be due to
extraversion, but might be due to good social network or that they may be more sensitive to reward)
introverts: quieter isolated rooms
frontsl lobes
higher activiation of the left frontal lobe are happier (extraverts)
lower activation nof the inhbited part of the brain are more sad (introverts)
Personality researchers sometimes examine the personalities of children who were adopted shortly after birth. They do this because
genetic and environmental influences are not confounded like they are when examining children raised by their biological parents.
Those acquaintances of yours who prefer quiet and perhaps isolated rooms in which to study are, according to research, more likely to be
introverts
Cross-cultural studies find similar patterns of what men and women look for in their spouses across many different cultures. These findings support evolutionary personality theory because they suggest that mate preferences do not merely reflect differences in
social learning patterns.
Isaac is a teenager who has a very difficult relationship with his father. One day he is talking to his girlfriend, Chloie, and he says, "I swear I am never going to be anything like that man when I get older!" Chloie knows about the research in personality and heritability, and smiles as she remembers that about ________% of our adult personality is directly linked to the contribution of genetics.
40
You know a woman who has many friends and is often out having fun. But this woman also typically acts before thinking, thus bringing her a lot of trouble. This woman is probably
an extrovert
According to evolutionary personality theory, men and women base their choice of romantic partners in part on concerns for "parental investment." This means we
select mates who are likely to contribute to successful reproduction and child-raising.
A personality psychologist designs an experiment in which she plans to use the twin-study method. The psychologist is probably conducting research to examine the
influence of genetics on personality.
Anna and Hannah are monozygotic twins who have agreed to take part in a research study on the heritability of personality traits. Which of the following is an issue that might act as a confound in this research?
MZ twins may share more of their environment than DZ twins.
Research on genetic determinants of personality tell us that
somewhere around half of adult personality is determined by genetics, but experience also plays a large role in who we become.
Research has found that extraverts are not always happier than introverts. Why not?
Extraverts are more likely to be impulsive.
Recent research challenges one aspect of Eysenck's original theory, suggesting that extraverts and introverts differ in terms of their
sensitivity to stimulation.
Which of the following is not a basic temperament according to the three-dimensional model of Buss and Plomin?
Connectivity
A man tends to have strong reactions to emotional events. He becomes overly excited and panics when facing even mild stress, and takes a long time to recover from these experiences. Eysenck might say this man is high on which personality dimension?
Neuroticism
A five-year-old boy is controlled and gentle. He is reluctant to play with new children and hesitates when entering new situations. Temperament researchers would probably identify this child as
inhibited
Researchers have examined cerebral asymmetry in depressed people. The results of this research suggests that
some people may be born with a greater likelihood to become depressed than others.
Which of the following is false about childhood differences in temperament patterns?
Differences are related to intelligence.
According to the evolutionary psychology perspective, the process of social exclusion leads to anxiety because
experiencing anxiety serves an important survival function.
A psychologist purchases an electroencephalograph (EEG) for use in his research. The psychologist is interested in measuring
brain-wave activity
According to temperament researchers, which statement is correct about inhibited children?
They are born with a predisposed tendency for anxiety to novelty.
five aspects of trait approach
achievement motivation
type A behavior
social anxiety
emotions
optimism & pessimism
Murray
Need to achieve; develops the TAT and some self report as a way to measure psychogenic needs
Thinks that these needs are unconscious
Achievement Motivation
a desire for significant
accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard
A psychogenic need developed by Henry Murray
characteristics of high achievement
moderate risk takers
optimistic
tackle work with energy
prefer jobs with responsibility
like immediate feedback
anticipate future/ makes plans
succeeded due to myself, failed due to other's
Attributions of achievement motivations
table 8.1 p 170
stable, locus, and control
achievement goals
mastery goals vs. performance goals
approach goals vs avoidance goals
Mastery Goals vs. Performance Goals
both are reasons that make people high achievers
mastery: we
want to learn for the sake of learning everything
performance: a particular goal is in mind and learning is just a means to an end
Approach goals vs. Avoidance goals
approach: doing things?
avoid: avoid some other potential outcome
performance avoidance
i want to do well so I can avoid a negative outcome
performance approach
doing just enough work to ensure that one's performance will be superior to that of others
mastery avoidance
A fear of not performing up to one's own standards
mastery approach
working to attain something of self-determined intrinsic
value
best long term learning
Type A personality
personality type that describes people who are competitive, driven, hostile, and ambitious.
more at risk more heart disease (high blood pressure-anger and hostility increase blood pressure-, stress- cortisol is dumped-, HDLs/Lipids/etc, not including biology)
Type B personality
Personality characterized by relatively relaxed, patient, easygoing, amicable behavior.
Where did Type A & B Personality types originate?
medicine, who is more at risk for heart attacks
social anxiety vs introversion
social anxiety (evaluation apprehension) is more about being shy/nervous around people and introversion is where people gain energy by being alone and prefer this time to themselves. Introversion does not mean they're shy, and many shy people don't not want to be around people, in fact they may be trying to make more friends
evaluation apprehension
concern for how others are evaluating us
- illusion of transparency (people can see how nervous we are)
- spot light effect (we think everyones watching us)
Positive Affectivity
a dispositional tendency to experience pleasant, engaging moods such as enthusiasm, excitement, and elation
Negative Affectivity
tendency to experience negative emotions and moods, feel distressed, and be critical of oneself and others
state emotion
Caused by temporary conditions
PANAS Scale
one of the most widely used scales to measure mood or emotion
dispositional optimism
the expectation that in the future good events will be plentiful and bad events will be rare
good for achievement and health
Deffensive Pessimism
tendency to expect bad outcomes and prepare for dealing with those bad outcomes
only positive form of pessimism