Which structures in the brain are activated when a person observes someone performing a behavior quizlet?

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Terms in this set (203)

Biological psychology

The specialized branch of psychology that studies the relationship between behavior and bodily processes and systems; also called biopsychology or psychobiology

Neuroscience

the study of the nervous system, especially the brain

Other scientific disciplines contributing to neuroscience include:

biology, physiology, genetics, and neurology

Nervous system

the body's primary internal communication network; divided into the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system

Neurons

the basic cells of the nervous system; a highly specialized cell that communicates information in electrical and chemical form; a nerve cell

Endocrine system

a closely linked system to the nervous system; the system of glands, located throughout the body, that secrete hormones into the bloodstream; much slower to communicate than the nervous system

A bit of brain tissue the size of a grain of rice contains _____________ neurons.

about 10,000

You're entire brain consists of about ______________ neurons.

100 billion

There are three basic types of neurons:

sensory, motor, and interneurons

Sensory neurons

the type of neuron that conveys information to the brain from specialized receptor cells in sense organs and internal organs. (convey light or sound and other enviornmental information)

Motor neurons

the type of neuron that signals muscles to relax or contract; also communicates information to glands.

Interneurons

the type of neuron that communicates information from one neuron to the next. This is the most abundant kind of neuron

Mirror neuron

structurally the same as a motor neuron, but a distinct type; they become activated when someone performs a motor skill and observes someone else doing the same motor skill

Most neurons have three basic components:

cell body, dendrite, and an axon

Cell body

the part of a cell that contains structures to produce proteins, processes nutrients, and provides energy for the neuron to function; contains the cell's nucleus; also called the soma.

Dendrites (Greek for "tree")

the multiple short fibers that extend from a neuron's cell body and receive information from other neurons or from sensory receptor cells.

Axon

the long, fluid-filled tube that carries a neuron's messages to other body areas; not present on all neurons; those that have usually have branches near their tips to communicate information to different areas; vary enormously in length.

Nucleus

contained in the cell body and contains the cell's genetic material (DNA or chromosomes.)

Some neurons can have _____________ of dendrites.

thousands

The longest axon in your body is

the motor axon extending from the base or your spine to control your big toe (ranges from 3-4 ft. long)

Glial cells or Glia

Greek for "glue," the support cells that assist neurons by providing structural support, nutrition, and removal of cell wastes; they manufacture myelin; the most abundant cells in the human brain and outnumber neurons 10-1.

Microglia

remove waste products from the nervous system, including dead and damaged neurons

Astrocytes

provide connections between neurons and blood vessels; involved in brain development and communication among neurons

Oligodendrocytes

glial cells in the brain that form the myelin sheath for axon cords

Schwann cells

glial cells throughout the rest of the peripheral nervous system that create the myelin sheath for axon cords.

Myelin sheath

a white, fatty covering wrapped around the axons of some neurons that increases their communication speed; it helps protect interference from axons of other neurons

Nodes of Ranvier (Nodes)

the small gaps in the myelin sheath

Neuron's with their axons coated in myelin communicate ______ times faster than those without it.

50

Multiple Sclerosis

a disease that involves the degeneration of patches of the myelin sheath, which causes the transmission of neural messages to be slowed or interrupted; it affects sensation and muscle movement; muscle weakness, loss of coordination, and visual/speech impairment are symptoms.

Action potential

a brief electrical impulse by which information is transmitted along the axon of a neuron

Stimulus threshold

the minimum level of stimulation required to activate a particular neuron

Resting potential

the state in which a neuron is prepared to activate and communicate its message if it receives sufficient stimulation; about -70 millivolts within the axon during polarization.

Ions

electrically charged particles that travel from the dendrites and cell body through the axon membrane; can be negatively or positively charged

Ion channels

channels that allow ions to flow into and out of the axon by the axon membrane opening and closing

Polarized

when a neuron is waiting for sufficient stimulation from another neuron or sensory receptor to activate it; there is a difference between the electrical charge inside and outside of the axon; a greater concentration of negative ions inside of the neuron

Millivolts

thousandths of a volt

While the neuron is in resting potential, the fluid surrounding the axon contains a larger concentration of ____________ ions than the fluid within the axon. The inside of the axon contains a higher level of _________________ than the fluid outside of the axon.

sodium; potassium

Depolarize

happens during the action potential stage; each successive axon segment opens a sodium ion channel and quickly closes. This is followed by the potassium ion channels opening up to the surrounding fluid around the axon. The causes the charge to change to +30 millivolts (the action potential)

Once an neuron is successfully stimulated, the neuron then

depolarizes.

The action potential is regenerated by

the depolarization and movement of ions.

All-or-none law

either the neuron is sufficiently stimulated and an action potential occurs, or the neuron is not sufficiently stimulated and an action potential does not occur

There is no such thing as a partial action potential.

True

Refractory period

after the action potential during which the neuron cannot fire and during this time, the neutron repolarizes

Repolarize

After the action potential, when the neuron reestablishes the negative inside/positive outside condition and returns to -70 millivolts within the axon interior; happens progressively at each segment and reestablishes the resting potential.

Fastest neurons in body travel at a speed of ______ and the slowest at _________.

279 mph; 2 mph

Variation in neural communication speed is due to two factors:

the axon diameter and the myelin sheath

The larger the diameter of the axon the ______________ the communication is.

faster

Synapse

the point of communication between two neurons

Synaptic gap

the tiny, fluid-filled space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of an adjoining neuron.

Presynaptic neuron

the message-sending neuron

Postsynaptic neuron

the message-receiving neuron

Axon terminals

the branches at the end of the axon that contain tiny pouches, or sacs, called synaptic vesicles

Synaptic vesicles

the tiny pouches or sacs in axon terminals that contain chemicals called neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers manufactured by a neuron; most neurons produce one type, others 3+; they all have a chemically distinct shape.

Synaptic transmission

the process through which neurotransmitters are released by one neuron, cross the synaptic gap, and affect adjoining neurons

Reuptake

the process by which neurotransmitter molecules detach from a postsynaptic neuron and are reabsorbed by a presynaptic neuron so they can be recycled and used again.

Receptor sites

the place located on the postsynaptic neuron's dendrite where neurotransmitters attach themselves after being released from the synaptic vesicles

Neurotransmitter molecules that are not reabsorbed or remain attached to the receptor site are

broken down or destroyed by enzymes.

Excitatory message

increases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will activate and generate an action potential

Inhibitory message

decreases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will activate.

Each neuron in the brain communicates directly with an average of ___________ other neurons, however, some specialized neurons have as many as _________________ connetions with other neurons.

1,000; 100,000

There are up to ____________________ synaptic interconnections in your brain.

100 trillion

Researchers have linked abnormal levels of specific ______________________ to various behavioral problems.

neurotransmitters

Acetylcholine (ACh)

neurotransmitter that causes muscle contractions and is involved in learning and memory; first neurotransmitter discovered and present in all motor neurons; a depletion of these neurotransmitters correlate with the development of Alzheimer's Disease.

Botulinum

used in Botox; it's a toxin that causes muscle paralysis around the injection site by blocking the release of acetylcholine from motor neurons. Muscles don't contract, skin smoothes out, and wrinkles are diminished or eliminated.

Alzheimer's Disease

characterized by progressive memory loss and deterioration of intellectual functioning

Dopamine

neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of bodily movement, attention/thought processes, and rewarding sensations; drug addiction is believed to occur due to increased activity of this neurotransmitter

Parkinson's disease

characterized by rigidity, muscle tremors, poor balance, and difficulty in initiating movements; treated with L-dopa

L-dopa

a drug that converts to dopamine in the brain to alleviate the symptoms of Parkinson's disease

Schizophrenia

a severe mental disorder characterized by hallucinations and perceptual distortions; caused by an overabundance of dopamine; antipsychotic drugs are used to block dopamine receptors for reduced dopamine activity but long term use can result in Parkinson's-like symptoms

Serotonin

a neurotransmitter involved in sensory perceptions, sleep, mood and emotions; low amounts of this can cause depression and Prozac, or other anti-depressant drugs, can be prescribed to enhance this neurotransmitter activity.

Norepinephrine

a neurotransmitter involved in learning memory, and regulation of sleep; also, a hormone manufactured by adrenal glands, it is implicated in the activation of neurons to prepare for a state of danger or threat; low amounts can be related to stress and mostly depression.

Glutamate

neurotransmitter that usually communicates an excitatory message; having too much of this can lead to seizures, overstimulating the brain, and cell death--also related to Alzheimer's, schizophrenia, and other neurological diseases.

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

neurotransmitter that usually communicate an inhibitory message; too much of this can lead to impaired brain activity; alcohol increases this neurotransmitter activity

Endorphins

neurotransmitter that regulates pain perceptions; implicated in the pain reducing effects of acupuncture; drugs such as opioids, heroin, and morphine are chemically similar but not as potent.

Acupuncture

an ancient Chinese medical technique that involves inserting needles at various locations in the boy

"Runner's high"

the rush of euphoria that many people experience after intense aerobic exercise, especially running or cycling. Caused by an intense amount of endorphins that are produced during aerobic exercise

Much of what is known about neurotransmitters has been learned from observing

effects of drugs and other substances.

A black widow spider bite causes

continuous Acetylcholine activity from the motor neurons, causing severe muscle spasms.

Ways that drugs interfere with synaptic transmission:

they prevent the reuptake of neurotransmitters, they mimic neurotransmitters to produce the same effect, and they can block receptor sites from neurotransmitters to prevent effects.

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

include medications, such as Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil; they inhibit the reuptake of serotonin, increasing the availability of serotonin in the brain; cocaine produces a similar effect with dopamine to create an exhilarating effect

Agonist

drug or other chemical substance that binds to a receptor site and triggers a response in the cell; chemically similar to the original neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

a drug or other chemical substance that blocks a receptor site and inhibits or prevents a response in the receiving cell.

Nicotine

similar to Acetylcholine, it occupies the acetylcholine receptor site and causes your heart to beat faster.

Curare

a drug that blocks acetylcholine receptor sites, causing almost instantaneous paralysis

Naloxone

a drug that is an opioid antagonist; it almost instantly reverses the effects of heroin, oxycodone, or other opioids.

Two major communication system in the body are:

the nervous system and the endocrine system.

The most important transmitter of messages in the central nervous system is

the neuron

In the peripheral nervous system, communication occurs along

nerves.

Nerves

large bundles of neuron axons that carry information in the peripheral nervous system; large enough to be seen with the unaided eye.

Central nervous system (CNS)

the division of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord; entirely protected by bone (skull for your brain and spinal column for your spinal cord)

Meninges

three layers of membranous tissues that surround and protect your brain and spinal cord

Cerebrospinal fluid

an added measure of protection that suspends the brain and spinal column to keep them from being jarred.

Ventricles

four hollow cavities in the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid, and on the inside surface, are lined with neural stem cells

Neural stem cells

specialized cells that generate neurons in the developing brain

Spinal cord

handles both incoming and outgoing messages; sensory receptors send messages along the sensory nerves

Traumatic brain injury (TBI)

a disruption of normal brain functioning created by a certain event; could include a concussion

Concussion

defined as a disruption of normal functioning that occurs in the absence of a discernable structural or physical damage to the brain; the most common and mildest type of TBI; could be caused by a sports injury, car accident, bomb blast, or fall; behavioral symptoms include loss of consciousness, double or blurred vision, aphasia, memory loss, etc.

Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)

a serious brain disease resulting from chronic concussions and usually diagnosed in pro athletes; a progressive, degenerative brain disease that can only be diagnosed after death; symptoms include depression, anxiety, poor judgment/lack of impulse control, poor memory, concentration, or attention--leads to dementia and death

"NFL Brain Bank"

the Boston University Center for the Study of Traumatic Encephalopathy

Spinal reflexes

simple, automatic behaviors that occur without any brain involvement; the withdrawal reflex

The withdrawal reflex

occurs when you touch a painful stimulus, such as something hot, electrified, or sharp; involves a loop of communication between sensory neurons (sensation to spinal cord), interneurons (relay information within spinal cord), and motor neurons (signal muscles to react)

To test if your neural pathways in your spinal cord are working correctly, a physician will test your spinal reflexes, such as

the knee-jerk spinal reflex or the toe-curl spinal reflex

As the spinal reflex occurs, sensory neurons send messages up the spinal cord to the ________________, and then the message is relayed to the proper cortical area called the ________________, where the sensation is perceived as pain.

thalamus; somatosensory cortex

Peripheral nervous system

the division of the nervous system that includes all the nerves lying outside the central nervous system, including your skin

The communication functions of the peripheral nervous system are handled by its two subdivisions:

the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system

The somatic nervous system

takes its name from the Greek word "soma" meaning "body"; the subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that communicates sensory information to the central nervous system and carries motor messages from the central nervous system to the muscles.

Autonomic nervous system

meaning "self-governing," the subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary functions, such as heartbeat, blood pressure, digestion, etc; can be influenced by various physical activity or altered mental states.

The involuntary functions regulated by the autonomic nervous system are controlled by two different branches:

the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

Sympathetic nervous system

the branch of the autonomic nervous system that produces rapid physical arousal in response to perceived emergencies or threats

Parasympathetic nervous system

the branch of the autonomic nervous system that maintains normal bodily functions and conserves the body's physical resources; calms your after an emergency; Heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure level out. Pupils constrict back to their normal size, saliva returns, and the digestive system begins operating again.

Fight-or-flight response

the bodily changes that accompany the sympathetic nervous system during an imminent threat or dangerous situation; faster heartbeat, rapid and shallow breathing and bronchial tubes dilate, dilated pupils, digestion stops, inhibited salivation, and you begin to sweat with a greater expenditure of energy and heat

The endocrine system and the nervous system are directly linked by the ___________________ in the brain, which controls the pituitary gland.

Hypothalamus

Hormones

chemical messengers secreted into the bloodstream primarily by endocrine glands and circulate throughout the bloodstream until they reach specific hormone receptors on target organs or tissues.

What are some physical processes regulated or influenced by the endocrine system?

metabolism, growth rate, digestion, blood pressure, sexual development, and reproduction; also emotional responses or responses to stress

Some hormones and neurotransmitters are

chemically identical; they can act as each other to produce the same effect

Hypothalamus

an area of the brain that regulates signals that regulate the secretion of hormones; serves as the main link between the nervous and endocrine systems. It directly regulates the release of hormones by the pituitary gland.

Pituitary gland (the master gland)

the pea-sized endocrine gland attached to the base of the brain that secretes hormones affecting the function of other glands as well as hormones that act directly on physical processes. It produces oxytocin, growth hormone, and prolactin; releases endorphins to mask pain

Growth hormone

stimulates normal skeletal growth during childhood

Prolactin

the hormone that stimulates milk production in nursing mothers.

Oxytocin

hormone involved in reproduction, social motivation, and social behavior; it produces the "let-down" reflex to let stored milk "let down" into the nipple; also signals for the uterus to contract; reputation of the "love hormone," although there is counterevidence of this hormone causing social anxiety and hostility towards non-group members.

Pitocin

a synthetic form of oxytocin that is given to women to induce labor

Adrenal glands

the pair of endocrine glands that are involved in the human stress response; located on the kidneys

Adrenal cortex

the outer portion of the adrenal glands; also interact with the immune system

Adrenal medulla

the inner portion of the adrenal glands, which secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine; plays key role in the fight-or-flight response when the sympathetic nervous system stimulates this gland

Immune system

the body's defense against invading viruses or bacteria

Gonads

the endocrine glands that secrete hormones that regulate sexual characteristics and reproductive processes, ovaries in females and testes in males.

Ovaries

secrete the hormones progesterone and estrogen

Testes

secrete sex hormones called androgens, most importantly, testosterone

Testosterone

secreted in male and females by the adrenal glands and only in males by the testes.

Sex hormones influence:

sexual development, sexual behavior, reproduction, along with brain structure and function

The brain makes up about ____ percent of your body weight, yet consumes _____ of the body's energy.

2; 20

Phrenology

a pseudoscientific theory of the brain that claimed that personality characteristics, moral character, and intelligence could be determined by examining the bumps on a person's skull; founded by 19th-century German physician Franz Gall.

We only use 10% of our brain.

False; we use virtually every part of the brain almost all the time.

Cortical localization

localization of function; the notion that different functions are located or localized in different areas of the brain

The psycograph

invented in early 1900s, and it stamped out brief summaries of the phrenological "faculties" measured; popular in dept. stores and theater lobbies in the US

The best way to think of the brain is as an

integrated system.

Connectome

map of neural connections in the brain

Diffusion spectrum imaging (DSI) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

new brain scanning techniques that allow neuroscientists to produce 3-D images of the neural pathways that connect one part of the brain to another. They track the movement of water molecules in brain tissue along the axons.

Tracts

neural pathways made up of white matter

White matter

the bundles of myelinated axons that connect the cerebral cortex to other brain regions

Corpus Callosum

the pathway between the right-and left-brain hemispheres

Neural pathways

formed by groups of neuron cell bodies in one area of the brain that project their axons to other brain areas; they form communication networks and circuits that link different brain areas

Neuroplasticity (plasticity)

the brain's ability to change function and structure; "plastic" or "plastikos" in Greek means to be easily shaped or molded.

Functional plasticity

the brain's ability to shift functions from damaged to undamaged brain areas; usually the case for stroke or accident victims

Structural plasticity

the brain's ability to change its physical structure in response to learning, active practice, or environmental influences.

Neurogenesis

the development of new neurons

Hippocampus

a brain structure that plays a critical role in the ability to form new memories

Within the hippocampus, an average of _________ neurons were being generated each day in the human brain.

1400

It is generally accepted that newborn neurons develop into mature functioning neurons in at least two regions of the human brain:

the hippocampus and the olfactory bulb

Olfactory bulb

responsible for odor perception

What influences the rate of neurogenesis in monkeys, rodents, and birds?

stress, exercise, environmental complexity, social status

The brainstem includes the ________________ and ________________, located at the base of the brain..

hindbrain; midbrain

Hindbrain

a region at the base of the brain that contains several structures that regulate basic life functions, such as breathing, posture, coordination, alertness, and maintaining other vital life functions; connects the brain to the spinal cord

Midbrain

...

Contralateral organization

means that sensory information coming from one side of the body crosses over at the hindbrain level, projecting to the opposite side of the brain. This is true for outgoing motor messages leaving one side of the brain and crossing over the hindbrain level to control the movements of the other side of the body.

Three structures make up the hindbrain:

the medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum

Medulla

a hindbrain structure situated at the base of the brain directly above the spinal cord that controls vital life functions such as breathing and circulation, blood pressure, and a number of vital reflexes (swallowing, coughing, vomiting, and sneezing); this is at this level that contralateral organization occurs

Pons (meaning "bridge")

the uppermost region of the hindbrain, above the medulla, and it connects the medulla to the two sides of the cerebellum; it helps to coordinate and integrate movements on each side of the body, as well as plays an important role in regulating breathing

Cerebellum

it bulges out behind the pons; it's a large, two-sided hindbrain structure at the back of the brain; responsible for muscle coordination and maintaining posture and equilibrium. It plays a major role in learning habitual or automatic movements, such as typing, writing, or other things; The pons "bridges" large bundles of axons to this structure on either side, because a number of higher up brain regions communicate to the pons before this particular structure.

Reticular formation

a network of nerve fibers located in the core of the medulla and the pons that helps regulate attention, arousal, and sleep; also called the reticular activating system.

The Midbrain

the middle and smallest brain region, involved in processing auditory and visual sensory information.

Substantia nigra ("dark substance")

an area of the midbrain that is involved in motor control and contains a large concentration of dopamine-producing neurons; many symptoms of Parkinson's disease relating to impaired movements are associated with the degeneration of this brain structure.

Forebrain

the largest and most complex brain region, which contains centers for complex behaviors and mental processes; also called the cerebrum, it includes the cerebral cortex and the limbic system structures.

Cerebral cortex (cortex meaning "bark")

the wrinkled outer portion of the forebrain, which contains the most sophisticated brain centers; the outer covering of the forebrain and it's about a quarter of an inch thick, composed mainly of glial cells, neuron cells and axons (called "gray matter" for its appearance)

Cerebral hemispheres

the nearly symmetrical left and right halves of the cerebral cortex

Corpus callosum

a thick bundle of axons (approx. 300 million) that connects the two cerebral hemispheres and acts as a primary communication link between them.

Each cerebral hemisphere can be divided into four regions, or lobes:

temporal, occipital, parietal, and frontal lobes

Temporal lobe

an area on each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex, near the temples, that is the primary receiving area for auditory information; contain the primary auditory cortex

The primary auditory cortex

which receives auditory information and is located in the temporal lobe

Occipital lobe

an area at the back of each cerebral hemisphere that is the primary receiving area for visual information; includes the primary visual cortex

The primary visual cortex

where visual information is received

Parietal lobe

an area on each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex located above the temporal lobe that processes somatic sensations; the somatosensory cortex is included in this area

Somatosensory cortex

receives information from touch receptor in different parts of the body.

Frontal lobe

the largest lobe of each cerebral hemisphere; processes voluntary muscle movements and is involved in thinking, planning, and emotional control; it contain the primary motor cortex

Primary motor cortex

where the initiation of movement for different parts of the body occur

Association cortex (association areas)

the remaining bulk of the cerebral cortex that is generally thought to be involved in processing and integrating sensory and motor information.

Prefrontal association cortex

situated in front of the primary motor cortex, is involved in the planning of voluntary movements

Limbic system (limbic means "border")

a group of forebrain structures that form a border around the brainstem and are involved in emotion, motivation, learning, and memory.

The hippocampus (meaning "seahorse")

a curved forebrain structure embedded in the temporal lobe in each cerebral hemisphere that is part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming new memories

The thalamus (Greek meaning: "inner chamber")

a rounded mass of cell bodies located within each cerebral hemisphere that processes sensory information for all senses except smell, relaying that information to the cerebral cortex; also thought to be involved in regulating levels of awareness, attention, motivation, and emotional aspects of sensations.

The hypothalamus (hypo means "below")

a peanut-sized forebrain structure that is part of the limbic system and that regulates behaviors related to survival, such as eating, drinking, and sexual activity; involved in many functions and sometimes called "the brain within the brain"

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

one area of the hypothalamus that plays a key role in regulating daily sleep--wake cycles and other rhythms of the body.

The amygdala

an almond-shaped cluster of neurons in the base of the brain's temporal lobe, involved in memory and emotional responses, such as anger, disgust, and especially fear; electric stimulation can produce adverse behaviors and destruction of this region reduces/disrupts adverse behaviors

The amygdala is known to be involved in the detection of _________________ stimuli, but is recently understood to be involved in responding to other __________________ stimuli, appealing as well as upsetting.

threatening; emotional

On average, males had significantly more neural connections ____________ the left and right hemispheres than females. And, females had significantly more neural connections ______________ the left and right hemispheres than males. This study seemed to later reveal that _______ of the brain rather than sex determined the quantity of specific neural connections.

within; between; size

Male brains are about _____ percent larger that female brains.

10

Pierre Paul Broca

a French surgeon and neuroanatomist that presented compelling evidence for cortical localization; found that brain damage to the lower left frontal lobe was consistent between a series of patients who had trouble producing speech but could read and understand written language

Broca'a area

the lower left frontal lobe on the left hemisphere that is crucial to speech production

Karl Wernicke

a young German neurologist that discovered another area in the left hemisphere that was related to language disturbance; his patients had great difficulty understanding spoken or written language, and their responses to simple questions would come out as gibberish.

Wernicke's area

and area on the left temporal lobe

Lateralization of function (lateralized)

the notion that specific psychological or cognitive functions are processed primarily on one side of the brain.

Aphasia

the partial or complete inability to articulate ideas or understand spoken or written language because of brain injury or damage.

Broca's aphasia

also called expressive aphasia, find it difficult or impossible to produce speech

Wernicke's aphasia

also called receptive aphasia, finds it difficult to comprehend written or spoken communication and have trouble speaking the correct words

Split-brain operation

a surgical procedure that involves cutting corpus callous; used to stop or reduce recurring seizures by severe epilepsy

The most dramatic evidence illustrating the independent functions of the two cerebral hemispheres has come from a surgical procedure called

the split-brain operation.

Epileptic seizure occurs when

neurons begin firing in a disorganized fashion in one region of the brain and this disorganized neural firing quickly spreads across the corpus callosum to the other hemisphere

Roger Sperry

a psychologist and neuroscientist who led the investigation of understanding the left and right hemispheres

The left hemisphere has superior function of

language abilities, speech, reading, and writing

The right hemisphere is more involved in

nonverbal emotional expression and visual-spatial tasks; completing puzzles, facial recognition, emotional cues, reading maps, copying designs, and drawing; musical appreciation or responsiveness

Pancreas

regulates blood sugar and insulin levels; involved in hunger

Thyroid gland

controls body metabolism rate

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