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Terms in this set (128)
Social Imagination
The application of imaginative thought to the asking and answering of sociological questions. Someone using the sociological imagination "thinks himself away" from the familiar routines of daily life.
Structuration
The two-way process by which we shape our social world through our individual actions and by which we are reshaped by society.
Globalization
The two-way process by which we shape our social world through our individual actions and by which we are reshaped by society.
Social facts
the aspects of social life that shape our actions as individuals
organic solidarity
Durkheim; the social cohesion that results from the various parts of a society functioning as an integrated whole.
Social Constraint
The conditioning influence on our behavior by the groups and society of which we are members.
Anomie
a situation in which social norms lose their hold over individual behavior
Materialistic conception of history
Marx- material or economic factors have a prime role in determining historical change
Capitalism
An economic system based on private ownership of wealth, which is invested and reinvested to produce profit
Symbolic interactionism
emphasizes the role of symbols and language as core elements of human interaction
Functionalism
a theoretical perspective based on the notion that social events can best be explained in terms of the functions they perform , that is, contributions they make to the continuity of a society.
manifest functions
social activity that is known to and intended by the individuals involved in the activity
Latent function
functional consequences that are not intended or recognized by the members of a social system in which they occur
Conflict theories
a sociological perspective that emphasizes the role of political and economic power and oppression as contributing to the existing social order
Marxism
a body of thought deriving its main elements from the ideas of Karl Marx
power
The two-way process by which we shape our social world through our individual actions and by which we are reshaped by society.
ideology
The two-way process by which we shape our social world through our individual actions and by which we are reshaped by society.
Feminism
Advocacy of the rights of women to be equal with men in all spheres of life.
Feminist theory
A sociological perspective that emphasizes the centrality of gender in analyzing the social world and particularly the experiences of women.
postmodernism
The belief that society is no longer governed by history or progress.
microsociology
The study of human behavior in contexts of face-to-face interaction.
macrosociology
The study of large-scale groups, organizations, or social systems.
Empirical investigation
factual inquiry carried out in any area of sociological study
factual questions
questions that raise issues concerning matters of fact
comparative questions
questions concerned with drawing comparisons among different human societies
developmental questions
questions that sociologists pose when looking at the origins and path of development of social institutions
Theoretical questions
questions posed by sociologist when seeking to explain a particular range of observed events.
Steps of Research Process
1. Define the research problem
2. Review the evidence
3. Formulate a hypothesis
4. Work out a research design
5. Carry out the research
6. Interpret the results
7. Report the findings
Qualitative methods
approaches to sociological research that often rely on personal and/or collective interviews, accounts, or observations of a person or situation
Quantitative methods
Approaches to sociological research that draw on objective and statistical data and often focuses on documenting trends, comparing subgroups, or exploring correlations.
Ethnography
qualitative method; the firsthand study of people using observation, in-depth interviewing or both. "Fieldwork"
Participant observation
a method of research widely used in sociology and anthropology in which researches takes part in the activities of the group or community being studied.
Pilot study
a trial run in survey research
Sampling
studying a proportion of individuals or cases from a larger population as representative of that population as a whole
sample
a small proportion of a larger population
representative sample
a sample from a larger population that is statistically typical of that population.
random sampling
sampling method in which a sample is chosen so that every member of the population has the same probability of being included
comparative research
research that compares one set of findings on one society with the same type of findings on other societies
triangulation
the use of multiple research methods as a way of producing more reliable empirical data than are available from any single method
debriefing
following a research study, the investigator will inform study participants about the true purpose of the study, and will reveal any deception that happened during the study
measures of central tendency
ways of calculating averages
mean, mode, median
personal troubles
difficulties that are located in individual biographies and their immediate milieu, a seemingly private experience
public issues
difficulties or problems that are linked to the institutional and historical possibilities of social structure
subjective knowledge
open to the possibility of personal, subjective knowledge including intuition
procedural knowledge
learning how to gain knowledge through objective procedures
constructed knowledge
view knowledge as contextual, experience themselves as creators of knowledge and value subjective and objective ways of knowing
interest convergence
the thesis that majority group members will only support the interests of minorities
when those actions also support the interests of the
majority group
operationalization
developing operational definitions or specifying the exact operations involved in measuring a variable
the three main elements of the traditional model of science are
Theory, operationalization, observation
the paradigm that accounts for the impact of economic conditions on family structures is
structural functionalism
Sociologists use several lines of questioning. The question "Why are more women waiting longer to get married and/or have children?" is an example of a _____.
developmental question
According to Jean Baudrillard, the proliferation of content on such sites as YouTube on the World Wide Web is a powerful way in which __________ is created.
meaning
One of the strengths of a hypothesis in a research project is that it is subject to revision as the research progresses, which reflects on the larger idea that scientific ideas are
open to criticism and revision.
The 2017 Youth Risk Behavior Study found that nearly _____ of high school students had been bullied on school property, and _____ had been electronically bullied.
20 percent; 15 percent
A study of university admissions that compares the impact of gender and social class on probability of admission before and after World War II is an example of
macrosociology.
The 2017 Youth Risk Behavior Study found that high school students are more likely to be bullied____ than _____.
online; at school
According to George Herbert Mead, what is it that allows humans to develop self-consciousness?
the capacity for symbolic thought
_____ usually generate richer and more in-depth information than other data collection methods.
Ethnographies
Once a researcher chooses the method (or methods) that are best suited for data collection, she is in the _____ step of the research process.
working out a design
Auguste Comte, the founder of sociology, originally described the discipline as _____.
social physics
According to Herbert Spencer, privileged members of society enjoy a higher quality of life because they have earned this status through hard work and because of their natural ability. Spencer bases this belief, in part, to his analogy of society as a
biological organism.
cultural appropriation
When members of one cultural group borrow elements of another group's culture
culture
The values, norms, and material goods characteristic of a given group.
values
Ideas held by individuals or groups about what is desirable, proper, good, and bad. What individuals value is strongly influenced by the specific culture in which they happen to live.
norms
Rules of conduct that specify appropriate behavior in a given range of social situations.
language
A system of symbols that represent objects and abstract thoughts; the primary vehicle of meaning and communication in a society.
linguistic relativity hypothesis
A hypothesis, based on the theories of Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, that perceptions are relative to language; also referred to as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
material culture
The physical objects that society creates that influence the ways in which people live.
signifier
Any vehicle of meaning and communication.
society
A group of people who live in a particular territory, are subject to a common system of political authority, and are aware of having a distinct identity from other groups.
sociobiology
An approach that attempts to explain the behavior of both animals and human beings in terms of biological principles.
instinct
A fixed pattern of behavior that has genetic origins and that appears in all normal animals within a given species.
Biological determinism
The belief that differences we observe between groups of people, such as men and women, are explained wholly by biological causes.
subcultures
Cultural groups within a wider society that hold values and norms distinct from those of the majority.
countercultures
Cultural groups within a wider society that largely reject the values and norms of the majority
assimilation
The acceptance of a minority group by a majority population, in which the new group takes on the values and norms of the dominant culture. `
Multiculturalism
The viewpoint according to which ethnic groups can exist separately and share equally in economic and political life.
Ethnocentrism
The tendency to look at other cultures through the eyes of one's own culture and thereby misrepresent them.
cultural relativism
The practice of judging a society by its own standards.
cultural universals
Values or modes of behavior shared by all human cultures.
pastoral societies
Societies whose subsistence derives from the rearing of domesticated animal
agrarian societies
Societies whose means of subsistence are based on agricultural production
Industrialization
The emergence of machine production, based on the use of inanimate power resources (such as steam or electricity).
industrialized societies
Highly developed nation-states in which the majority of the population work in factories or offices rather than in agriculture and in which most people live in urban areas.
nation-state
A particular type of state, characteristic of the modern world, in which a government has sovereign power within a defined territorial area and the population are citizens who know themselves to be part of a single nation.
colonialism
The process whereby Western nations established their rule in parts of the world away from their home territories.
developing world
The less-developed societies, in which industrial production is either virtually nonexistent or only developed to a limited degree. The majority of the world's population lives in less-developed countries.
emerging economies
Developing countries that, over the past two or three decades, have begun to develop a strong industrial base, such as Singapore and Hong Kong.
Nationalism
A set of beliefs and symbols expressing identification with a national community
socialization
The social processes through which we develop an awareness of social norms and values and achieve a distinct sense of self.
social reproduction
The process whereby societies have structural continuity over time. Social reproduction is an important pathway through which parents transmit or produce values, norms, and social practices among their children.
Resocialization
The process of learning new norms, values, and behaviors when one joins a new group or takes on a new social role or when one's life circumstances change dramatically.
cognition
Human thought processes involving perception, reasoning, and remembering.
social self
According to the theory of George Herbert Mead, the identity conferred upon an individual by the reactions of others. A person achieves self-consciousness by becoming aware of this social identity.
generalized other
A concept in the theory of George Herbert Mead, according to which the individual takes over the general values of a given group or society during the socialization process.
looking-glass self
A theory developed by Charles Horton Cooley that proposes that the reactions we elicit in social situations create a mirror in which we see ourselves.
sensorimotor stage
According to Jean Piaget, the first stage of human cognitive development, in which a child's awareness of his or her environment is dominated by perception and touch.
preoperational stage
According to Jean Piaget, the first stage of human cognitive development, in which a child's awareness of his or her environment is dominated by perception and touch.
egocentric
According to Jean Piaget, the characteristic quality of a child during the early years of life. Egocentric thinking involves understanding objects and events in the environment solely in terms of the child's own position.
concrete operational stage
The stage of human cognitive development, as formulated by Jean Piaget, in which the child's thinking is based primarily on the physical perception of the world.
formal operational stage
According to Jean Piaget, the stage of human cognitive development at which the growing child becomes capable of handling abstract concepts and hypothetical situations.
agents of socialization
Groups or social contexts within which processes of socialization take place.
nuclear family
A family group consisting of an adult or adult couple and their dependent children.
hidden curriculum
Traits of behavior or attitudes that are learned at school but not included within the formal curriculum, for example, gender differences.
peer group
A friendship group composed of individuals of similar age and social status.
social roles
Socially defined expectations of an individual in a given status or occupying a particular social position.
social identity
The characteristics that other people attribute to an individual.
self identity
The ongoing process of self-development and definition of our personal identity through which we formulate a unique sense of ourselves and our relationship to the world around us.
gender socialization
The learning of gender roles through social factors such as schooling, peers, the media, and family.
race socialization
The specific verbal and nonverbal messages that older generations transmit to younger generations regarding the meaning and significance of race.
life course
The various transitions and stages people experience during their lives.
aging
The combination of biological, psychological, and social processes that affects people as they grow older.
social gerontologists
Social scientists who study older adults and life course influences on aging processes.
disengagement theory
A functionalist theory of aging that holds that it is functional for society to remove people from their traditional roles when they become elderly, thereby freeing up those roles for others.
activity theory
A functionalist theory of aging that maintains that busy, engaged people are more likely to lead fulfilling and productive lives.
continutiy theory
Theoretical perspective on aging that specifies that older adults fare best when they participate in activities consistent with their personality, preferences, and activities from earlier in life.
social conflict theory of aging
Arguments that emphasize the ways in which the larger social structure helps to shape the opportunities available to older adults. Unequal opportunities are seen as creating the potential for conflict
life course theory
A perspective based on the assumptions that the aging process is shaped by historical time and place; individuals make choices that reflect both opportunities and constraints; aging is a lifelong process; and the relationships, events, and experiences of early life have consequences for later life
young old
Sociological term for persons between the ages of sixty-five and seventy-four.
old old
Sociological term for persons between the ages of seventy-five and eighty-four.
oldest old
Sociological term for persons age eighty-five and older.
ageism
Discrimination or prejudice against a person on the basis of age.
Which statement applies to hunting-and-gathering societies?
There is less inequality in such societies than in any other type of human society discussed in the text.
Which statement BEST summarizes the general sociological approach to the "nature/nurture" debate?
Although genetics and biology play a role in human behavior, they manifest in an astounding variety of ways, based on complex interactions with the social environment.
Sociologist Arlie Hochschild (1983) found that many workers in modern industrial countries
are required to display socially acceptable emotions at work.
Childhood has been an important part of human society in all cultures
for about a hundred years.
Midlife, or "middle age," is a generally recognized part of our life course, and its recognition is due to
increases in overall life expectancy.
Unlike child abuse, most elder abuse is perpetrated by ________.
someone other than a family member
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