by Tudor O. Bompa, PhD Show
Athletic performance has dramatically progressed over the past few years. Performance levels unimaginable before are now commonplace, and the number of athletes capable of outstanding results is increasing. Why such dramatic
improvements? There is no simple answer. One factor is that athletics is a challenging field, and intense motivation has encouraged long, hard hours of work. Also, coaching has become more sophisticated, partially from the assistance of sport specialists and scientists. A broader base of knowledge about athletes now exists, which is reflected in training methodology. Sport sciences have progressed from descriptive to scientific.
During training, the athlete reacts to various stimuli, some of which may be predicted more certainly than others. Physiological, biochemical, psychological, social, and methodological information is collected from the training process. All this diverse information comes from the athlete and is produced by the training process. The coach, who builds the training process, may not always be in a position to evaluate it. However, we must evaluate all the feedback from the training process to
understand the athlete's reactivity to the quality of training and properly plan future programs. In light of this, it becomes clear that coaches require scientific assistance to ensure that they base their programs on objective evaluations. Theory and
methodology of training is a vast area. Closely observing the information available from each science will make coaches more proficient in their training endeavors. The principles of training are the foundation of this complex process. Knowing the training factors will clarify the role each factor plays in training, according to the characteristics of a sport or event. Scope of Training Training is not a recent
discovery. In ancient times, people systematically trained for military and Olympic endeavors. Today athletes prepare themselves for a goal through training. The physiological goal is to improve body function and optimize athletic performance. The main scope of this training is to increase athletes' work and skill capabilities and to develop strong psychological traits. A coach leads, organizes, and plans training, and educates the athlete. Many physiological, psychological, and sociological
variables are involved. Training is primarily a systematic athletic activity of long duration, which is progressively and individually graded. Human physiological and psychological functions are modeled to meet demanding tasks. Objectives of Training To improve skill and performance, athletes, led by the coach, must meet the training objectives. The general objectives presented in this chapter will be useful for comprehending the concepts in this book. Multilateral Physical Development Sport-Specific Physical Development Technical Factors Tactical Factors Psychological Aspects In some sports (team sports, relays, rowing, cycling, etc.), team preparation is one of the coach's main objectives. The coach can accomplish this by establishing harmony in the team's physical, technical, and strategic preparation. The coach must establish such a concord for psychological preparation, meaning sound relationships, friendships, and common goals among teammates. Training competitions and social gatherings consolidate the team and enhance the feeling of belonging. The coach must encourage the team to act as a unit and should establish specific plans and roles for each athlete according to the needs of the team. Health Factors Injury Prevention Theoretical Knowledge This summarizes some general training objectives that a coach may consider in developing a training program. Specific characteristics of most sports and of individuals performing them may require the coach to be selective or to establish additional training objectives. Pursue training objectives in a successive manner. The early program should develop the functional basis of training, then move toward achieving sport-specific goals. For instance, Ozolin (1971) suggests first developing general endurance followed by specific or anaerobic endurance. Another example is the Romanian gymnasts who commence each annual training program with a phase (approximately one month) of strength development before starting technique work. The sequential approach is also extensively used in long-term training programs. Classification of Skills Several attempts have been made to classify physical exercises. One criterion was based on the idea that if a person looked good, then he or she was healthy and strong. The founder of German gymnastics, Friederich Jahn, employed as a criterion the equipment the athletes used (Eiselen 1845). Leshaft (1910) divided all exercises into three groups. The first group included simple exercises (calisthenics); the second group incorporated
more complex exercises and exercises with progressive loading (jumping, wrestling); and the third group was complex exercises (games, skating, fencing). Cyclic skills are used in sports such as walking, running, cross-country skiing, speed skating, swimming, rowing, cycling, kayaking, and canoeing. The main characteristic of these sports is that the motor act involves repetitive movements. Once athletes learn one cycle of the motor act, they can
duplicate it continually for long periods. Each cycle consists of distinct, identical phases that are repeated in the same succession. For example, the four phases of a rowing stroke, the catch, drive through the water, finish, and recovery, are part of a whole. The athlete performs them in the same succession during the cyclic motion of rowing. All cycles the athlete performs are linked; the present one is preceded and will be followed by another one. The coach's comprehension of these skill classifications plays an important role in the selection of the appropriate teaching method. The whole (entire skill) method of teaching seems to be the most efficient for cyclic sports, because it is difficult to break down the respective skills of running, speed skating' or cross-country skiing. For acyclic skills, breaking down a skill and teaching the components separately (the parts method) results in quicker retention. For example, you can divide the hitch kick technique in the long jump into components (steps) until the athletes accomplish each part properly; then they can learn it as a whole. Classification of Sports Voluntary motor acts result from a complex ensemble of muscle contractions performed under dynamic or static conditions, and involve force, speed, endurance, coordination, and amplitude. Categorizing sports is based on training objectives and on physiological and skill similarities necessary to attain and ensure an adequate performance. With this in mind, Gandelsman and Smirnov (1970) divided all sports into seven groups:
The first group includes gymnastics, modern rhythmic gymnastics, figure skating, and diving. Performance often depends on the perfection of
coordination, technical complexity of a skill, and artistic presentation, because points are based on subjective judgment. Most skills are acyclic, although some are cyclic (the approach in tumbling and vaulting in gymnastics, jumps in figure skating). The acyclic structures of most skills are diverse, defining a variety of types and intensities of training work, which leads to many adjustments in body functions. Although the activities
in the sixth group (shooting, archery, chess) are well recognized sports, they are not physical exercises because the motor component is low. As Gandelsman and Smirnov (1970) have suggested, however, these sports reflect the main tendency of modern training, the CNS's increased role of guiding the activity. During training and competition, the CNS is under a great deal of stress. Though a competitor does not experience high physical involvement, chess players and shooters participate in
well-planned physical exertion. Both sports require excellent endurance, allowing the competitors to focus their concentration, patience, and psychological self-control during a prolonged competition. Upper-body strength is beneficial for shooting so the athlete can hold the weapon still, without deviating from the target.
System of Training A system is an organized or methodically arranged set of ideas, theories, or speculations. A system should encompass accumulated experience as well as The organization of a nation's system should first define its goals, and, based on that, structure itself so that all echelons and units are linked in a solid and sequential setup (figure 1.2). The suggested system has a pyramid structure: at the base are the youngsters in physical education; the peak encompasses the high-performance unit, the nation's athletic ambassadors
Training Adaptation A high level of performance is the result of many years of well-planned, methodical, and hard training. During this time, the athlete tries to adapt his or her organs and functions to the specific requirements of the chosen sport. The adaptation level is reflected by performance capabilities. The greater the degree of
adaptation, the better the performance. FROM: PERIODIZATION - Theory and Methodology of Training What is the focus of sports training?Sports training is especially focused on optimal performance in a particular sport. Its main aim is to develop the performance capacity of sports persons, so that they achieve the highest possible performance. To do so, it is essential to be mentally strong.
In what ways does sports training become an essential part of a trainee life in sports?Training allows the body to gradually build up strength and endurance, improve skill levels and build motivation, ambition and confidence. Training also allows athletes to gain more knowledge of their sport as well as enabling them to learn about the importance of having a healthy mind and body.
What is the importance of applying the principles of exercises to individuals training?Understanding exercise principles allows trainers to monitor the stress (exercise load) placed upon their client in order to make the training safe and effective, helping the client to achieve their goals.
Which sports training principle refers to focusing on training one body part?Principle of Specificity in Athletic Training.
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